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The position of Catholics in the UK has evolved since the days of the Reformation. Criminal law directed against them was abolished in the 18th century, but they gained full political rights as late as 1829. The lack of trust for the Catholics, typical for the modern and nineteenth‑century England, originated from international configuration, and was supported by conviction of the idolatrous nature...
Until the 19th century woman’s role in the family and in the society was clearly defined – she was to be a housekeeper, a mother and a wife to her husband. As a result, her education and upbringing aimed at preparing her to perform these roles. However, in the 19th century women decided to break the stereotype and more often and more willingly, took up steps which allowed them to gain a specific profession,...
The article presents, on the example on Giulio Cesare Vanini (1585–1619), the consequences which those who were recognized as atheists faced in the early modern era. And the consequences were: exile, imprisonment, torture or death. In the times of Vanini every case of denying or undermining Christianity, especially Catholicism, was dubious. The worst of them was atheism which by the defenders of faith...
Although the ancient Greeks did not use the concept of tolerance, they were not unfamiliar with the concept of sneer, malicious laugh or mockery. Tolerance, or the lack of it, can be examined on various levels, also on the most important one deriving from the original meaning of the word tolerantia, that is religion. Although the religious system of the ancient Greeks is commonly described as a "tolerant"...
Stanisław Staszic’s philosophical and political thought remains one of the greatest inellectual achievements of the Polish Age of Enlightenment. One of the most important issues is the question of power and handing it to individuals. In the time of reforms in the Polish Republic Staszic claimed that only strong central power was able to deliver the country from destruction and defeat the anarchy of...
After World War I Ukrainian minority within the borders of the Second Polish Republic amounted to five million. The Poles were mainly concerned about rebuilding of the Polish state after gaining independence and the Ukrainians could not come to terms with the fact that they were subdued by a foreign power and did not have a state of their own. Both Poles and Ukrainians found themselves in a difficult...
Chełm land needs rethinking. One should not be indifferent to the transformations it is now undergoing. The one I have thought a lot about and been provoked to think about myself by for quite a few years now is „the different one” – the Orthodox. It turns out that the one from the past is very close to me (through my ancestors) and when the visting inhabitant of the Chełm Land, Chołmszczak, prays...
The article is an attempt at outlining the history of Gdansk student associations in the times of the Free City Danzig in 1920–1939. It presents the incidents between German and Polish students that took place at the Higher School of Technology in Gdansk‑Wrzeszcz. The Polish students tried to stand up to harassment and they did so to different effect. The German student associations did not tolerate...
The author of the article concentrated on the times when cigarettes began to become popular at the turn of 19th and 20th centuries. There were no bans on advertisements of cigarettes and no anti-smoking acts. Based on various sources the author comes to a conclusion that smoking cigarettes by the clergy was not considered a heavy offence against morality. It was seen as something inappropriate and...
The article is a synthetic attempt to summerize information about the film Intolerance made by David Wark Griffith in 1916. The author’s portrait was sketched and the circumstances of the creation of one of his most important films were described. The text was based on Polish subject literature and the selected materials from the foreign literature. All four episodes of Intolerance were described...
In medieval culture the sin was a threat to the unity of the community as it produced the realm of the symbolic and physical defilement, moral and material dirt. Sinner’s negative behavior could not be tolerated and excommunication was the means of repression. Excommunication broke the bond between the Christian and the Church, taking away the intercession of the Church and the spiritual benefits...
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